Photovoltaics for space applications has to fulfill a number of very stringent requirements. On the one hand the space environment is characterised by specific features that are very different from terrestrial applications, such as extreme temperatures (high and low), numerous thermal cycles between those extremes, high UV light content and particle irradiation. Thus, solar cells for space applications have to demonstrate that they are robust towards these environmental conditions. Furthermore, there is usually no possibility to repair solar arrays once they are launched. This places very strict requirements to the reliability of solar cells. Durability within the space environment and reliability are topics that are covered by extensive qualification campaigns on ground. The presentation will address these key requirements and how they are validated by introducing the standards applicable to space photovoltaics, i.e. the ECSS (European Cooperation for Space Standardization) series. Furthermore, also in space as it is for terrestrial applications, cost is a driver for space photovoltaics. However, the cost of the solar cell is only one part in the equation. What in the end matters, is the system level cost. It will be explained that for new technologies to be competitive with existing III-V multi-junction cell technology it is very likely that a minimum performance of clearly above 20% end of life is required. Finally, the  European space solar cell roadmap will be introduced.

Due to massive research, the champion devices for perovskite solar cells have passed the 25% threshold. In general, perovskite solar cells only require comparatively thin absorber layers on the order of 100 nm, which enables a reduction in device thickness of the total solar cells well below 1 µm. Moreover, processing of the perovskite layer can be done from solution on flexible substrates at low temperatures via potential scalable methods like printing and spray coating. Thereby, flexible perovskite solar cells can be fabricated. Combining these advantageous factors, enables fundamentally higher specific energy densities compared to the classical solar cell types used in space so far. Moreover, it will open up new possibilities in transport, deployment, and application of perovskite solar cells in space. However, so far, performance data of perovskite solar cells in space environment is very limited. Besides promising laboratory experiments that can never capture the full set of ambient conditions present in space, some near-space experiments have been performed in the upper atmosphere with appealing results regarding the performance and stability.

Here, we present the first electrical characterization of perovskite solar cells at orbital altitudes [1,2]. Space flights are an ideal platform to investigate the behavior of solar cells in conditions that are characterized by ultra-high vacuum, strong UV solar irradiation, and the absence of oxygen or water outside Earth’s atmosphere. During a suborbital rocket flight, we measured the voltage-current response of perovskite solar cells under different illumination conditions. The combination of the solar cell measurements with irradiance data obtained from simultaneous light sensor measurements allows for deducing the performance parameters. Our results show that the solar cells survived the harsh conditions during transport, the start preparation procedure, and the rocket launch, where the best solar cells reached power conversion efficiencies of more than 10% for perovskite-based solar cell modules. Our results show the versatility of perovskite solar cells for application in various environmental conditions, with promising potential to revolutionize future renewable energy production in space.

Due to their high power-to-weight ratio (specific power) and potential to be fabricated as flexible devices, perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have gained increasing interest from the aerospace sector, to supersede the current technology. However, before they can be selected as the preferred candidate, they must be assessed in two different scenarios. One is the use in High Altitude Pseudo-Satellites (HAPS), in which thermal and light stability is important due to the increased altitude. Another is the use in space missions, where those factors, along with high energy particles, pose a threat to the operational stability of the devices.

We concentrate on the latter, by studying the proton irradiation hardness of perovskite solar cells. Here, we probe the 150 keV proton irradiation stability of mesoporous-carbon perovskite solar cells (m-CPSCs). These m-CPSCs are manufactured using a screen printer, showcasing their ability to be upscaled, and have already shown impressive lifetime stability in the literature. We demonstrate that the m-PSCs can withstand 150 keV proton irradiation up to 1x10¹⁵ protons/cm² without any loss in efficiency. At this irradiation dose, Si, GaAs, and perovskite solar cells would be completely or severely degraded. Thereby making the m-CPSC the most proton irradiation stable solar cell at 150 keV proton energy. Through non-destructive characterization techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, Photoluminescence, and simulation programmes such as SRIM, the results showcase the superior radiation stability and stopping power of the carbon electrode. The crystalline structure of the carbon remains unchanged, even at 1x10¹⁵ protons/cm², thereby acting as an encapsulation layer, as well as an electrode. This work shows the potential of m-CPSCs for use in space PV, as well as the stability advantages when utilising a carbon electrode.  

Flexible organic solar cell (FOSC) is one of the most promising power sources for aerospace aircrafts due to the attractive advantages of high power-per-weight ratio and excellent mechanical flexibility. Understanding the performance and stability of the high-performance FOSCs is essential for further development of FOSCs for aerospace application. In this work, we systematically investigated the performance of the state-of-the-art high-performance non-fullerene solar cells under low temperature (-60 ⁰C) and intensive UV illumination, and in situ measured the performance and stability of the FOSCs at 35 km stratospheric environment through a high-altitude balloon. The encapsulated FOSCs with an area of 0.64 cm2 gave a highest power density of 9.76 mW/cm2 under AM0 illumination, corresponding to a power-per-weight ratio around 2 kW/kg. More importantly, the cells showed stable power output during the 3-hour continuous flying at 35 km and only 10% performance decay after return back to the lab, suggesting a promising stability of the FOSCs in stratospheric environment.

Testing solar cells in the stratosphere dates back to the mid 1960s, with the beginning of NASA’s programme for calibration of reference solar cells onboard high altitude balloons. Such procedure quickly became a standard and is still in use both for calibration and for testing of new photovoltaic technologies in near-space conditions. The stratosphere - albeit different from LEO as for particle radiation, vacuum level and temperature extremes - has very similar insolation conditions to AM0 and provides an excellent and easily accessible environment for early testing of new spacebound solar cells, so to advance technology and climb up the TRL ladder. It also provides, of course, the proper enviroment where testing of advanced photovoltaics for the stratosphere-dwelling, forthcoming large High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS - also known as High Altitude Pseudo Satellites) shall take place.

The Space Systems group at UniPi, mostly concerned with small satellites and with the associated power generation systems, recently got an opportunity to fly a solar cell test package in the frame of the H2020 HEMERA programme. To this end, we designed and built a very compact system for in-flight measurement of the I-V curves of solar cells of various kind, including perovskites, CIGS, terrestrial silicon cells and state-of-the-art triple junction GaAs. Our ECAPS experiment (“Experimental Characterization of Advanced Photovoltaics in the Stratosphere”) will fly on the SOLAR mission, scheduled for launch in August 2022 onboard a large zero-pressure balloon from Timmins, Canada, under CNES management. The balloon gondola is equipped with an attitude control system that guarantees correct exposure towards the Sun throughout the flight; ECAPS will sit side-by-side with the much larger institutional/commercial CASOLBA facility of CNES, providing an invaluable opportunity for cross-check of the solar cell measurement system performance.

We present ECAPS design and expected performance, as well as the dedicated solar cell testing system, derived form the ECAPS experience, that we fly on our proprietary miniaturized stratospheric platform based on COTS sounding balloons. Equipped with attitude stabilizers and an optional Sun-pointing mechanism, such novel platform provides flight opportunities to 30-35 km altitude, with a permanence time of 1 to 12 hours at altitude, minimal pre-flight integration effort and very low cost.

Cost-efficient, lightweight perovskite-based space PV with high power-weight (W/g) values are the dream power source for private-driven space exploration, planned satellite mega-constellations, and future habitats on Moon and Mars. Application outside Earth’s protective atmosphere, however, places enormous demands on material and device stability. We recently demonstrated that perovskite single-junctions, as well as perovskite/CIGS and perovskite/perovskite tandem PV, are highly radiation tolerant, even when compared to commercially available, industry-standard III-V semiconductor on Ge triple-junction space solar cells.^1–4

Nevertheless, a deep understanding of the stability and degradation mechanisms is pivotal to further optimizing the efficiency as well as the stability for space applications. However, disentangling losses and damage in monolithically interconnected tandems requires selective investigations of the individual junctions within the multi-junction stack.

To enable such selective investigations, we present various subcell-specific characterization techniques that allow us to disentangle the different losses and limiting factors in perovskite-based multijunction solar cells. In contrary to standard JV characterizations our approach allows to assess the performance and loss mechanisms of the individual subcells, even after their assembly in a monolithic tandem stack and hence deduce loss and degradation mechanisms. We will introduce our approach and show subcell pseudo-JV characteristics from thorough electroluminescence and photoluminescence measurements.⁵ We will begin with a detailed analysis of perovskite/silicon and perovskite/perovskite tandems, and then show examples of subcell characterizations after high energetic irradiation mimicking the harsh radiation environment in space.

Organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices have the potential to be superior to other PV technologies in space applications because they can play out two of their main advantages, namely their high flexibility and low weight, maximizing the specific power which is the central figure of merit. With ultrathin active layers of submicron thickness, the heaviest part in OPV technology is the substrate. In outer space, mechanical loading is minimal (no gravitation, wind gusts, or snow loads), so that a further decisive reduction of weight could be achieved by building solar cells without substrates, relying only on the mechanical support of the thin barrier layers that are used for encapsulation.  However, this poses challenges on the reliable multilayer deposition process, as well as on the resilience against folding/unfolding during transport, which must be solved in a cost-effective way that is amenable to mass production.

In this work, we present fully solution-processed (which includes both electrodes) semitransparent organic solar cells (OSCs) without substrates, with performance comparable with conventional indium tin oxide-based devices. Direct cell fabrication onto barrier films leads to the elimination of the additional polyethylene terephthalate substrate and one of the two adhesive layers in the final stack of an encapsulated OPV device by replacing the industrial state-of-the-art sandwich encapsulation with a top-only encapsulation process. This yields significantly thinner and lighter ‘product-relevant’ PV devices. In addition to the increase of the specific power to 0.38 W g−1, which is more than four times higher than sandwich-encapsulated devices, these novel OSCs exhibit better flexibility and survive 5000 bending cycles with 4.5 mm bending radius. Moreover, the devices show comparable stability as conventionally encapsulated devices under constant illumination (1 sun) in ambient air for 1000 h. Finally, degradation under damp heat conditions (65 ◦C, 85% rh) was investigated and found to be determined by a combination of different factors, namely (UV) light soaking, intrinsic barrier properties, and potential damaging of the barriers during (laser) processing. [1]

In the outlook, we discuss how the barrier layers, and the photoactive layer can be stabilized against hard radiation using high throughput experimentation driven by physics-informed artificial intelligence.

The interest in novel photovoltaic materials, especially perovskites, increased rapidly. Within a decade, perovskite solar cells (PSCs) attained a record efficiency of 25,7% by 2022 (UNIST, Korea). Thereby, the development of PSCs draws more and more attention due to their highly efficient and cost-effective energy generation on Earth and now, even for space applications. Properties such as high specific power (power-to-weight ratio), compatibility with lightweight flexible substrates, and high radiation resistance show that PSCs have the potential of being the next generation of space photovoltaics [1]. 

The goal of PÆROSPACE (Project lead Dr.-Ing. Claudiu Mortan, Prof. Dr. Michael Saliba, Institute for Photovoltaics, University of Stuttgart) is to investigate the performance and stability of a different number of PSC configurations under space conditions. In regard of this project, the Institute for Photovoltaics (ipv) at the University of Stuttgart is researching on ultra-low weight, ultra-high vacuum (UHV) compatible, temperature and radiation stable perovskite devices.

In light of this, ipv solar cells are firstly prepared and tested on a high-altitude stratosphere balloon of the KSat e.V. (small satellite student society at the University of Stuttgart). The BUBBLE balloons are a series of helium-filled balloons for testing KSat-internal projects and external payloads at an altitude of up to 35 km over 90 minutes. The knowledge about the behavior of our solar cells in the stratospheric conditions (e.g. low ambient pressure of 5 mbar and temperatures down to -60°C) is the base for a successful apllication in space [2].

For this purpose, two material compositions of PSCs are developed and mounted on top of the gondola of the balloon. The incoming light from the sun is measured using a spectrometer, and the IV characteristics are recorded by means of a mobile characterization unit with a microcontroller. From this data, the efficiencies of the solar cells can be calculated. To investigate the time resolved stability of the solar cells, visible light spectroscopy using an on-board spectrometer is employed. Moreover, the holder construction for PSCs and electronic measurement equipment is designed.

The aim of the PÆROSPACE project is to answer the following research questions: How efficient and how stable are PSCs in space? Which perovskite material compositions are more suitable for space applications? How do space conditions influence perovskite solar cells?

The advent of novel material thin-film solar cells with their intrinsically low thickness and low-temperature processability opens up the avenue of lightweight and flexible solar cells for various new application fields. The combination of their today’s high efficiency and their low weight results in magnificent power-per-mass values, compared to classical space solar cells, that attest to them a high intrinsic fitness for becoming the next generation of space solar cells.

Previous near-space experiments in the upper atmosphere have shown the suitability of organic and perovskite solar cells with promising results in terms of their functionality and ability to generate electric power in harsh environmental conditions. We presented the first electrical characterization of these solar cell types in space at orbital altitudes [1]. However, the general interpretability of solar cell measurements is limited if the incident solar power is unknown, which is the usual case in real-world applications, apart from controlled laboratory conditions. In order to convert the measurements into quantitative performance data, the at the time present solar incident power needs to be well known and used as a solid ground for interpretation of the solar cell measurements.

Here, we present a new method of attitude determination with respect to the solar position based on parallelized ambient light sensor measurements. The measurements are obtained from the sounding rocket experiment Organic and Hybrid Solar Cells in Space during the MAPHEUS-8 mission [2]. In detail, we optimize the solar position evolution model during the flight using machine learning methods on the synchronized and parallelized ambient light sensor measurements and estimate the uncertainties of our solar position evolution reconstruction. The comparison with independent attitude estimates based on camera and inertia measurements shows promising agreement, mostly within 5°. Our simple sensor-array-based solar tracking method allows reconstruction of the specific solar irradiance conditions for our space solar cells with high precision. The basic principle of this method can be applied to various light sensor configurations and illumination conditions.

Over the last 10 years perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as credible contenders to conventional p-n junction photovoltaics. Their certified power conversion efficiency currently attains 25.7 %, exceeding that of conventional thin film devices. This lecture covers the recent evolution of PSCs, describing briefly their principles and current performance. Long term operational stability is a key requirement for their applications in space. We recently developed  a promising strategy for the holistic passivation of perovskite films composed of FAPbI₃ (band gap 1.53 eV) or FA₆₅MA₃₅Pb(I₆₅Br₃₅)₃ (band gap 1.71 eV )  films, which encompasses bulk as well as surface treatment with a set of newly designed compounds. By performing an in- depth experimental investigation supported by computational modeling and comprising systematic structural variations we succeeded in suppressing the unwanted photoinduced halide phase segregation in the mixed I/Br halide compositions while augmenting sharply their power conversion efficiency.

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) can be fabricated as lightweight, flexible, and highly efficient power devices at low cost. This advantage matches their applications to spacecrafts. We have evaluated the resistance of PSCs to high energy radiations, which is the biggest deterioration factor of the solar cells in the space. PSCs exhibit high radiation tolerance after irradiating PSCs with 1 MeV electrons and 50 keV protons and perovskite crystals had a low minority-carrier diffusion length (DL) after irradiating perovskite layers with 1MeV electrons. It has been reported that the photocurrent-voltage (I-V) characteristics of InP solar cells, which have a low DL, recovers after radiation deterioration. To clarify whether or not that the perovskite crystals are introduced with defects by radiation, the I-V characteristics of PSC immediately after irradiation and time dependence have been evaluated. At room temperature, 8 MeV proton beam (an energy that can penetrate the PSC and cause deterioration to the all PSC layers) was irradiated to the PSC using high efficiency CsMAFAPb(IBr)3 perovskite and the I-V characteristics immediately after irradiation and its time dependence were evaluated. The energy incident on the PSC (<1 μm) after passing through the 0.3 mm thick quartz glass substrate on the surface was 4.4 MeV. We measured the remaining factor of the parameter of I-V characteristics (the short-circuit current (Isc), the open-circuit voltage (Voc) and fill factor (FF)) in PSCs as a function of proton beam fluence. Up to radiation dose of 1×10¹³ /cm², no significant degradation was seen in all parameters. With a radiation dose of 1×10¹⁴ /cm², no degradation of 5% or more was observed in the Isc while FF decreased by 24% and Voc decreased by 9% immediately after irradiation and they recovered to 6% and 3%, respectively, 3 min. after irradiation. We consider that the deterioration and recovery of I-V characteristics observed in 1×10¹⁴ /cm² was due to the deterioration and recovery of the charge transport layers. From the results of I-V characteristics immediately after 8 MeV proton irradiation, it was clarified that no defects were introduced into the perovskite crystals to deteriorate power generation performance with a radiation dose of 1×10¹⁴ /cm². These investigations corroborate high radiation tolerance of the hybrid perovskite semiconductor.

Perovskite devices are known to degrade when exposed to far UV radiation [1][2]. The spectrum of sunlight in space, AM0, contains more UV radiation than the typical AM1.5 spectrum used in the industry to characterize photovoltaic devices. Often, Xenon-based light sources are used to mimic the AM1.5 spectrum. Considering the low amount of UV radiation, LED based illumination has the potential to better mimic the AM0 spectrum. Multiple LEDs with different illumination peaks are used in conjunction and controlled independently. To estimate the match of the LED spectrum with AM0, the LEDs are placed behind a monochromator and an EQE is performed on a perovskite. From this EQE, the mismatch factor is obtained. This factor is used to correct the JV curve obtained with the same illumination. 

LED based light sources also allow for pure ultraviolet light to investigate the degradation effects of perovskites due to UV light. A sealed chamber allowing for an inert atmosphere was developed for stability measurements. Localized peltier elements and small area near-proximity high-power LEDs allow for very fast cycling in both temperature and irradiance, respectively. Additionally, in operando PL-EL can be performed during stability measurements to extract radiative recombination and, hence, the status of the active layer.

The class of organic-based photovoltaics, which ranges from all-organic to hybrid perovskites, has the potential of becoming a disruptive technology in space applications, thanks to the unique combination of appealing intrinsic properties (e.g. record high specific power, tunable absorption window) and processing possibilities. With the launch of the ESA-stratospheric mission OSCAR, we demonstrated for the first time organic-based solar cell operation in extra-terrestrial conditions. Since extra-terrestrial conditions can be very extreme with regards to temperature, we further explored the thermal window of operation of organic solar cells in order to assess their suitability for operation at extreme temperatures on earth and in space.

Major recent trends for solar cells in space applications are driven by the growing new space market and the needs for improving the specific power (power-to-weight ratio) and reducing cost.

In such a context, the use of terrestrial technologies in a space environment can be considered with flexible, lightweight and highly efficient thin film solar cells.

Perovskite technology (PK) recently reached noticeable high performance (exceeding 25% efficiency) and exhibits intrinsic resistance to radiation.  With potential specific power up to 30kW/kg (few kW/kg for current space qualified photovoltaic) and fabrication of large surface devices at low cost, PK cells constitute promising candidate for space use.

However, space environment is a harsh environment with synergetic effects induced by radiation (low to high-energy particles –electrons and protons- and AM0 electromagnetic spectrum with short UV component), thermal constraints (cycling typically in the ±150°C range) and high vacuum conditions (10^-4 -> 10^-14 mbar).

More, in LEO most of residual atmosphere is made of atomic oxygen, a very reactive species that can erode external satellite surface.

Initial studies revealed the instability of PK response in high vacuum, under UV exposure (200-400nm) and the detrimental effect of thermal cycling. More, the development of appropriate protocol for qualification of PK cells for radiation effects and adapted prediction tool shall be considered. It requires deeper analysis of radiation-PK materials interaction and understanding of degradation-annealing mechanisms.

This paper provides an overview of the advantages of PK technology compared to existing space qualified photovoltaic (PV) and main challenges to overcome in order to develop and qualify PK solar cells for space application.

Steady-state and dynamic electro-optical tests on hybrid organic-inorganic photovoltaic (PV) devices, when properly performed, can give advanced knowledge on physical parameters like charge carrier diffusion length or recombination times at the active layer/selective contact interface. Space applications require special attention to environmental conditions. Cicci Research developed a fully integrated platform (Arkeo) with plug&play modules coupled with advanced environmental chambers. The internal rack mount system of Arkeo allows for expansion of its functionalities with several Eurocard-based modules: fully addressable active Peltier control boards, LED driver units (350-980 nm), 4-quadrant Source Meter Units and fiber-based spectrometer. The size of the chambers ranges from 30 x 30 mm especially suited for single substrate(1 to N pixels) to large format (150 to 300 mm) suited for modules or multiple substrates.

http://www.cicciresearch.it/assets/arkeo-flyer.pdf

Ultralight flexible perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have attracted extensive attention as power sources for space applications. Currently, there is still a certain gap between the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of flexible and rigid PSCs. In our work, we developed a scalable low-temperature solution process to fabricate efficient and stable ultralight flexible PSCs. The PSCs show a high PCE of 25% and 22%, with no hysteresis on rigid and flexible substrates, respectively, which are the best efficiencies reported to date for PSCs fabricated by low-temperature solution-processed techniques. The flexible PSCs show a remarkable power-per-weight of 36 W g^-1 and superior operational stability.

The past decades has witnessed the skyrocketing progress of metal halide perovskite solar cells as a promising  photovoltaic technology to deliver cost-effective solar electricity for terrestrial applications in the future with current world record energy conversion efficiency of over 25%. Besides rigid substrate, metal halide perovskite have also demonstrated competitive performance on light weight flexible substrate, showing the highest record of specific power that is highest desirable for applications in spacecrafts and satellites as a power supply.  Nevertheless, although the properties of perovskite materials and solar cells under conventional terrestrial environment have been well studied,  the knowledge of the behaviour of the device under space environmental conditions of high vacuum, large thermal cycles and strong irradiation is limited. In my talk, I will present the research progress of metal halide perovskite based photovoltaic technology for space applications and discuss the knowledge gap that need to filled on perovskite based space PV technology.

Thin-film solar cells with perovskite absorbers combine multiple advantages for space applications such as high efficiency, excellent radiation hardness and the ability for various combinations of tandem solar cells. However, most high-efficiency perovskites are still deposited on very small areas and on rigid substrates, which strictly limits their potential applications.

Therefore, in this contribution, we evaluate the transition from spin-coated layers on small areas to doctor blade and slot-die coated layers. This includes process optimizations on small area such as passivation and composition engineering and their transfer and necessary adjustments to scalable techniques, e.g. by using wetting agents or tailoring the precursor solution. For slot-die coated absorbers, efficiencies up to 16 % were achieved. In order to minimize the environmental impact, green solvents without the widely used but toxic dimethylformamide will be discussed.

After optimizing the slot-die coated perovskite layers on rigid substrates, the deposition was transferred to flexible substrates. Here, additionally the hole and electron transport layers were deposited by slot-die coating leading to all slot-die-coated solar cells.

Metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are of interest for high altitude and space applications due to their lightweight and versatile form factor. However, their resilience toward the particle spectrum encountered in space is still of concern. For space cells, the effect of these particles is condensed into an equivalent 1 MeV electron fluence. The effect of high doses of 1 MeV e-beam radiation up to an accumulated fluence to 1016 e
cm
2 on methylammonium lead iodide perovskite thin films and solar cells is probed. By using substrate and encapsulation materials that are stable under the high energy e-beam radiation,<br /> its net effect on the perovskite film and solar cells can be studied. The quartz substrate-based PSCs are stable under the high doses of 1 MeV e-beam irradiation. Time-resolved microwave conductivity analysis on pristine and irradiated films indicates that there is a small reduction in the charge carrier diffusion length upon irradiation. Nevertheless, this diffusion length remains larger than the perovskite film thickness used in the solar cells, even for the highest accumulated fluence of 1016 e
cm
2. This demonstrates that PSCs are promising candidates for space applications.

Perovskite solar cells are beginning to be explored as a space photovoltaic (PV) technology to power future missions into near-Earth and deep space orbits. This research field is, however, still in its infancy and requires a set of protocols that can allow proper assessment. In this talk, I will present guidelines to performing relevant radiation-tolerance experiments.[1] Putting recent reports into perspective, I will highlight three major pitfalls to avoid while testing radiation-tolerance of perovskite solar cells: cells with low initial power-conversion-efficiencies, use of suboptimal irradiation energies and fluences, and inadequate device architectures. Protons will be shown to be a radiation of choice for this assessment. The talk aims to drive home the point that perovskites are very different from the conventional III-V semiconductors – with significantly thinner absorber layers, and soft lattices – and protocols defined earlier for assessing III-V cells break down for perovskites. For perovskites, high-energy protons and electrons create local heating and can potentially self-heal the damaged lattices, masking the true extent of damage and making the tests less relevant. Low-energy protons (0.05- 0.15 MeV) will be suggested as the key to relevant testing and will be shown to create a uniform displacement damage profile within the device stack, mimicking the damage space radiation inflicts. I will close by presenting our recent strategies on improving radiation-hardness of perovskites.