Publication date: 10th April 2024
Lithium titanate, Li4Ti5O12 (LTO), due to its zero-strain behavior during cycling, excellent chemical stability and cyclability, has been a promising anode material for solid-state batteries (SSB) applications. By restricting the material into two dimensions, as a thin film, the range of applications broadens further for traditional battery materials into integrated circuits, sensors, batteries for flexible and internet of things devices, and memristors1-4. In these applications, a careful control of the mixed Li+ ionic – electronic carriers and their dynamics requires attention to alter either for an optimal battery storage anode or in a memristive application, operating at different cycle, life spans and voltages. In the past, improvements in electron conduction and lithium ion (Li+) diffusion have been achieved by the inclusion of dopants in powder instances of LTO5-8. Dopants such as Ta5+, Co3+, Mn4+, can change the electronic conductivity by altering the electron concentration or the ionic diffusivity by increased lattice sizes or affecting Li+ pathways. However, dopant studies completed on thin films are still limited. To bridge this gap in research, we investigate the effect of solid solution dopants on LTO thin film’s kinetics and how they impact functionality in device applications, specifically Li+ driven thin films for energy storage in batteries and information storage in memristors. The dopants chosen for this study were Nb5+, V5+, which replace the Ti4+, Mg2+, for Li+, and Cu2+, which substitutes both Li+ and Ti4+. Films were first produced using pulsed laser deposition (PLD) using doped LTO targets. To characterize these changes in our electrochemical kinetics, we measure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) observing variations in the atomic valences and conductivity and diffusion. Next, we characterize how the kinetic changes affect electrochemical performance in two applications, thin-film batteries and memristors. From our memristors, we see a trend among the hysteresis curves where Ti-replacing dopants, Nb5+ and V5+, have a decrease in hysteresis while the Li-replacing dopants, Mg2+ and Cu2+ see an increase in hysteresis and symmetry. In our battery samples, cyclic voltammetry measurements demonstrate the shifting of the cathodic peaks during lithiation shift to lower voltages, relating to the changes in material kinetics. Collectively, the insights of these measurements and others completed in this study contribute fundamentally to the understanding of the kinetics of Li movement in LTO, and how it might impact our thin-film applications, memristors and batteries.