Publication date: 10th April 2024
Storage of Lithium or Sodium in electrodes is a basic problem of Solid State Ionics and exploits point defect chemistry: Li is incorporated either as interstitial plus electron or by occupying vacancies and introducing holes.
The contribution starts with an overview of the various storage modes in battery research [1].
The simplest case is intercalation (single phase storage). The theoretical charge discharge curve is a coulometric titration curve of a mixed conductor, the practical values are governed by losses predominantly due to chemical diffusion. A master example is TiO2 [2].
The second storage mode is phase change, the classic example being FePO4. Here the stoichiometric variation around the two phases is small but most of the storage is happening in the two phase system. The defect chemistry is set out in more detail. A wonderful case is nanocrystalline FePO4 as here the two-phase region shrinks to zero and a huge stoichiometric window is met. Results from Ref. [3] are presented where it was shown that defect chemistry and only defect chemistry is able to even describe such an extreme situation.
The third mode is decomposition such as decomposition of LiRuO3 to Li2O and Ru enabling a large capacity but also showing severe kinetic difficulties. Here morphological optimization is key [4].
The fourth mode is interfacial storage [5]. The most straightforward explanation is our job-sharing model that decouples ionic and electronic effects at heterojunctions explaining excess capacities in heterogeneous systems such as Li2O:Ru. This effect also builds a bridge to supercapacitive storage. As for the latter also defect chemistry is the key, there should be a connection between interfacial storage and bulk storage, in other terms between intercalation and supercapacitive storage. Recently systematic research on TiO2 thin films has been carried out which can be translated into a unified picture of battery and supercapacitive research [6].
[1] J. Maier, Angew. Chem. Int.52, (2013) 4998.
[2] J.-Y. Shin, D. Samuelis, J. Maier, Solid State Ionics 225 (2012) 590.
[3] J. Maier, Y. Zhu, Adv. Mater. 35, (2023) 2304666 .
[4] C. Zhu, R. Usiskin, Y. Yu, J. Maier, Science 358, (2017) eaao2808 .
[5] C.-C. Chen and J. Maier, Nat. Energy 3, (2018) 102 .
[6] C. Xiao, H. Wang, P. van Aken, R. Usiskin, J. Maier, arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.10284.
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