Publication date: 10th April 2014
Lanthanide doped nanoparticles have the ability to undergo upconversion. Upconversion is a non-linear anti-Stokes process that efficiently converts two or more low-energy excitation photons, which are generally near infrared (NIR) light, into a higher energy photon (e.g., NIR, visible, ultraviolet) through the use of long lifetime and real ladder-like energy levels of trivalent lanthanide ions embedded in an appropriate inorganic host lattice. Thus, these materials are quickly emerging as candidates in novel biological applications. This stems from their unique optical and chemical properties, such as non-blinking, non-photobleaching, absence of autofluorescence, low-toxicity, low photodamage to live cells, and their remarkable ability to penetrate light in tissues. Here, we present the synthesis, characterization and optical properties of lanthanide-doped fluoride nanoparticles and subsequent strategies to impart biological functionality. Finally, we show relevant biological applications of these upconverting nanoparticles as a platform for photodynamic therapy, photoswitching for drug delivery and bio-imaging using photostimulated emission.
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